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Aaron Gantt

Dr. Dan L. Morrill

HIST 4000-A01

2 July, 2008

Strange Bedfellows: The General, The Scientist, And The Bomb

This writer contends that, despite their differences in background, personality, and expertise, the collaboration of J. Robert Oppenheimer and General Leslie R. Groves during the Manhattan Project was an essential link between the civilian scientific ingenuity and the military means of production that made the creation of the atomic bomb possible. Regardless of the dissimilarities between the two men, Groves and Oppenheimer established a common ground on which they could cooperate. It was because of their unique relationship that these two men found a way to work with each other in order to produce the first nuclear weapons, and help bring an end to the Second World War.

This writer will demonstrate this thesis by examining General Leslie R. Groves and J. Robert Oppenheimer in detail, observing the similarities and the differences between these two men, and finally, looking at how the general and the physicist worked together in achieving their common goal at the Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico.

In his essay, Recent Literature on Truman’s Atomic Bomb Decision, historian J. Samuel Walker explores the debate among scholars about President Truman’s decision to drop the atomic bomb over Japan, thus ending World War II. While his article does not deal directly with the topic of Groves and Oppenheimer, it does present a very intriguing insight into the historiographical debates over the decision to use the bomb. Walker’s article serves as an example of the types of discussions that arise in the pursuit of historical knowledge. Nevertheless, there are some minor disputes among historians when it comes to the matter of Groves and Oppenheimer and their collaboration during the Manhattan Project.

In his book, Racing for the Bomb, Robert S. Norris examines the differing historical perspectives that have plagued General Leslie R. Groves’s image throughout literature. Norris recalls the fact that there have been many inaccuracies and misinterpretations of the general over the years. Despite the reputations and reliability of some scholars, many of these historians fail to recognize just how important the contributions that Groves made to the Manhattan Project and the decisions in dropping the bomb truly were. In fact, Norris argues that Groves "actually was the most influential person of all."

Norris also examines the importance of J. Robert Oppenheimer and his contributions to the Manhattan Project. In his book, Norris notes how other scholarly works that deal with the subject take careful note of the relationship between General Groves and Oppenheimer, and their persona as the "odd couple" of the atomic bomb program. Norris recognizes the common observation among historians that despite their obvious differences, the two men were alike in many ways.

It is the intention of this writer to present a fair and even-handed look at the issues that surround the relationship between Groves and Oppenheimer during the Manhattan Project. While little debate exists as to the significance of their contributions to the Manhattan Project and their interactions with one another during this crucial period in history, it is still important to take into consideration a large number of resources to allow for a well-rounded examination on the topic at hand.

At heart, General Leslie R. Groves was a proud man. He was proud of his accomplishments at West Point, he was proud of his service in the military, and he was proud of his country. Without a doubt, Groves was a patriot, as is reflected by his many years of military service. To those who knew him best, Groves was not a very complex man. There were no dark secrets or any sort of hidden clues that could lead one to better understand the general and who he was. Everything that could be seen in Groves could be found at face value. If there was one key to Groves, it was the fact that he never gave up on himself. "He never lost faith in his ability to succeed." And it was this attitude that Groves possessed that paved the way for a life of achievements.

It should come as no surprise that one of the most influential and character-shaping events of Groves’s life was the experience and pride he obtained at West Point Military Academy. Hailing from a military family background, Groves was resolute in making his way into West Point. From there, Groves went on to become an army engineer, and his career in the United States Army continued to excel as he rose through the ranks establishing quite the name for himself among his graduating class of November, 1918. It was this grand accomplishment that helped define his character, and thus the man that he would become.

As many of the people who knew and worked with Groves would say, the general was by no means a humble man. He took pride in his accomplishments. It was not like Groves to easily forget where he was, and what he went through to get there. This inevitably led to a strong arrogance in Groves’s character that many people were quick to notice. There were many who disliked Groves for this fact, yet everyone thought very highly of him at the same time, for what he had accomplished was nothing short of extraordinary.

This arrogance in Groves helped form him into a very critical person when it came to dealing with others. Groves’s years of hard work in achieving his goals left him with high expectations for himself and for those around him. At times he could be coarse and sardonic, and always egotistic. He was not afraid to tell people what he thought of them, yet he cared little of what others thought of him. Groves expected nothing but the best from his subordinates, and spared little time to anyone who would get in the way of him accomplishing the task at hand. General Groves dealt with the people around him with a strict and unyielding authority. To many he could seem downright "tyrannical". Colonel Kenneth D. Nichols, the District Engineer of the Manhattan Engineer District once described Groves as "the biggest S.O.B. I have ever worked for."

Groves also understood how to treat others with a sense of courtesy if necessary. When neither a kind word nor an abrupt command would get the job done, Groves knew to stand back; a testament to his intellect as well as his skills as a leader. It is also important to note that no matter how hard Groves drove those around him, he never pushed anyone as hard as he did himself. For whatever words were chosen to describe the general, no one could ever deny his intelligence. Groves was without a doubt a very smart man as exemplified by his many accomplishments.

Groves valued his own ability to dedicate himself completely to a task and attain his desired outcome in the time given. This created a high standard for those around him to meet. Therefore, Groves appreciated people who shared his innate organizational and leadership skills. He had the ability to see this same quality in others and gravitated toward them. Because of his accomplishments and his innate management abilities, Groves was quickly appointed by the Army Corps of Engineers to take command of the entire Manhattan Project.

Upon reading his official orders specifying his responsibilities with the Manhattan Project, Groves viewed his job description in more simple terms, "Do whatever it takes to build the bomb as quickly as possible and thereby end the war." Only Groves could describe such a monumental task into such a brief and summarized statement. And that was the kind of language that Groves understood; quick and to the point. There was no need for mincing words.

It was clear that Groves understood what was at stake when he took on the responsibilities of the Manhattan Project. There was no doubt in the mind of his superiors that they had chosen the right man for the job. Few other men had the abilities to pull of such a daunting task. Groves possessed the capabilities and understanding of an engineer as well as an administrator. He was able to comprehend the needed scientific aspects of the project as well as move the operation forward in order to get the job done. Above all else, Groves knew how to make hard decisions and even take risks when needed.

As anyone who was familiar with Groves might expect, the general often came off as "boorish and doctrinaire" to many of the scientists at Los Alamos. Curiously enough, Groves had a rather limp handshake when he greeted people. It was because of his "dead fish" handshake that many of the scientists at Los Alamos never truly appreciated him. But despite his lack of good public relations, Groves accomplished his mission. In the end, it was clear to everyone that this hard-nosed, no-nonsense general with superior leadership and managerial skills was essential to building the bomb. It can be safely said that Groves was "the right man at the right time."

J. Robert Oppenheimer was a complicated man, always deep in thought and often erratic in behavior. It was this unpredictable personality that garnered him the reputation of being eccentric. Oppenheimer was a cultured man of tremendous intellect, spawned out of his Ivy League education. He originated from an affluent New York family of great stature, so obtaining the best education money could buy was of no difficulty. Oppenheimer had a diverse field of academic interests, including philosophy, linguistics, mathematics, poetry, and of course, physics. When he attended Harvard, it was not until later in his academic career that Oppenheimer delved into the worlds of chemistry and mathematical theory. His contributions to science would first come about early in his life as he "made important contributions in the 1930s in the field of cosmic rays and stellar objects" establishing some form of a reputation in the scholastic world.

Oppenheimer’s personality was a complex matter. His academic life was constantly intertwined with his personal life, as he would often quote poetry during daily conversation. To him, this sort of behavior was just a natural part of communicating his thoughts. His brilliance was undeniable, as the man spoke six languages, and even read the Bhagavad Gita in the original Sanskrit, formulating his own personal philosophy based off the ancient Hindu writings.

Along with his many gifts came some of his major flaws. Oppenheimer was destined to be the "tormented genius", as he struggled with depression while attending Harvard as well as in Cambridge. His depression carried him into such a downward spiral that he even considered suicide at one point. But for all his intelligence and abilities, Oppenheimer could be rather obtuse from time to time, "as if somehow unaware that the same rules applied to him as to everyone else." This unfortunate character flaw made him a frustrating person at times, but his genius as a teacher prevailed.

Oppenheimer had a certain "vulnerability" to his character, something that appealed to all those around him. He possessed a certain romanticized perspective on reality. One would have thought him to be completely oblivious to the realities of the world if it were not for his undeniable brilliance. It was this innocence in the man that helped inspire a great deal of devotion from his students. Indeed, Oppenheimer was very popular among his pupils, generating a great deal of envy from some of his colleagues. Oppenheimer could only be described as "a cult of personality" on the campus of Berkeley.

During the early 1940’s, Oppenheimer knew, as well as many other nuclear physicists at the time, that the U.S. Army was in need a physicist to head their project to design and build an atomic bomb. The U.S. Government soon found its way to Oppenheimer’s doorstep, who was quick to rise to this most difficult challenge. Oppenheimer would soon realize that the Manhattan Project was just too grand of an adventure to pass up.

Oppenheimer soon became a sort of recruiting officer for the Los Alamos Lab. As Edward Teller recalled, "Oppenheimer was a very clever politician. He understood people. He essentially knew how to influence them." And Oppenheimer used his gifts to the best of his abilities in bringing together an army of some of the world’s most talented scientists in order to create the atomic bomb. This was irrefutable evidence of Oppenheimer’s innate abilities as a leader. But despite Oppenheimer’s aptitude and qualifications, he was not the first choice for the job. Initially, the Army wanted Ernest Lawrence for the position. At the time, Lawrence was a professor at Berkeley and inventor of the cyclotron (not to mention a Nobel Prize winner). Unfortunately for the Army, Lawrence was not available for the project. Nevertheless, Oppenheimer was eventually chosen for the project by General Groves, who never doubted the Harvard graduate’s abilities. What others saw as a disadvantage in Oppenheimer, Groves saw as an asset. Groves was sure of the man he had chosen, as he noted in his memoirs many years later: "I thought he could do the job. In all my inquiries, I was unable to find anyone else who was available who I felt would do as well." By the time the world’s first nuclear weapons fell on Japan, Groves’s instincts would be vindicated, as Oppenheimer would soon prove that he was indeed the best man for the job.

At their core, Groves at Oppenheimer were two very different men. They differed in their background, their education, their expertise, their appearance, and their personalities. Yet, there were a number of curious similarities between the two men as well. They both shared a strange sense of humor, they were both very intelligent men, and they both would prove utterly essential to the Manhattan Project.

Both men originated from New York; Oppenheimer in New York City and Groves in Albany. Oppenheimer came from a wealthy family who sent him to Harvard where he studied chemistry and mathematics, and dabbled in literature and linguistics. Groves, on the other hand, was born to an Army Chaplin and was sent off to school at the University of Washington, then MIT, and eventually West Point. During his academic career, Groves studied mathematics, a subject he was most astute in. Oppenheimer was a tall and well-dressed gentleman, whereas Groves was a heavyset and somewhat cumbersome man. When standing side-by-side, the two men were complete opposites in appearance. But these were not the only dissimilarities that existed between the general and the physicist.

When it came to their personalities, Groves and Oppenheimer differed tremendously. Groves, on the one hand, was a simple man in many ways. He was not difficult to figure out in any way. One did not need to look deep inside to understand Groves; the essence of the man could be found on the surface. Oppenheimer was a different story. Here was a complicated enigma of a man. His views on such subjects as philosophy, politics, and religion were often considered "bohemian" and thoroughly unconventional.

At times, Groves could come across as ill-mannered and dogmatic, as was the case during his speech at the official opening of the lab in April of 1943, where he attempted to assure the men he was about to lead of his abilities and his education. This was a characteristic that came directly from Groves’s complete lack of humility. Groves worked hard at his education, and even harder afterwards in the Army Corps of Engineers. He was not afraid to tell the men under his command what he thought of them; this was partly because Groves thought very highly of himself. He often reminded his men of who was in charge, for Groves expected absolute cooperation from his subordinates. At his core, Groves was abrupt to the "point of rudeness."

In contrast, Oppenheimer was a much more meek and soft-spoken man than Groves. His persona was that of a charming and somewhat obscure scientist; a characteristic exaggerated by his immense intellect. Indeed, Oppenheimer was a very brilliant man with a quick mind and a plethora of academic interests that did more than occupy his time. However, with his intelligence came a sense of rudeness. At times, he could display a sense of superiority and arrogance. Oppenheimer "had a habit of interrupting people mid-sentence… as though he understood exactly what they were thinking and where their argument was headed – an argument that he would then proceed to rip apart in brutal fashion."

Oppenheimer liked to show off when it came to impressing those he respected. However, this performance ways in fact a façade that Oppenheimer projected in order to cover his deep sense of "melancholy and self-loathing" that stemmed from his childhood. At times, he could be quite dark in mood, and had a knack for venomous sarcasm. It was also this sarcasm that helped stimulate Oppenheimer’s sense of humor, that would prove to be quite useful in withstanding the strains of the Manhattan Project.

One aspect of the relationship that Groves and Oppenheimer shared that was most noticeable was their sense of humor. This aspect of their collaboration grew out of a "mutual respect" for each other that was essential to allowing the two men to work together so well under such stressful conditions. During one of the general’s surprise visits to the Los Alamos Laboratory, Groves scolded Oppenheimer for his porkpie hat that the physicist was notorious for wearing. Groves believed that Oppenheimer’s trademark headwear made him too recognizable when he was out in public, and thus created a severe security risk to the project. Oppenheimer was not going to take this kind of criticism lying down. Upon Groves’s next inspection, Oppenheimer donned an ornate Indian headdress for the general and promptly asked, "Is this better, sir?" As well as the two men would prove to work together with each other during the building of the bomb, the methods with which they used in dealing with others was quite different.

Oppenheimer and Groves had very different methods in which they dealt with the other scientists at Los Alamos. Thanks to his strict military education, Groves was not an easy boss to satisfy. He has been described as "a driver, never a praiser" by some of his subordinates, and it goes without saying that the general was a most abrasive man. His orders were given in a sterile and direct manner, and any deviation from his commands would not sit well with Groves. And for the scientists who worked under Groves’s critical eye, their experiences at Los Alamos would prove to be a crash-course in military procedure.

Oppenheimer’s methods in dealing with the personnel at Los Alamos were drastically different from that of the general’s. Unlike Groves’s by-the-books military approach, Oppenheimer was an orchestrator. He coordinated the operation with a delicate hand. Oppenheimer used people to the best of their abilities, and had no qualms about it. And because of his tactful way of doing so, the scientists never minded it. While Groves’s stopovers at the laboratory were often considered disruptive, Oppenheimer’s presence at Los Alamos was an essential part of designing the bomb. Oppenheimer also created discussion panels where the individual project leaders could come and discuss any dilemmas they faced. As the attendance of these meetings grew, the bomb project as a whole benefited tremendously. The weekly parleys became essential to the quickened progress and efficiency of the Manhattan Project.

The irrefutable fact about these two men was their essentialness to the Manhattan Project. Without their respective talents and geniuses, the atomic bomb may not have become a reality, and history may very well have taken a different course. If it not for General Groves’s "vision, drive, and administrative ability" the bomb most likely would not have been completed on time, and with the efficiency that was seen at the Los Alamos Laboratory. He was a man who knew how to get things done unlike anyone else. Groves was closely involved with the planning and the construction of the bomb, as well as its usage on Japan. Thanks to his characteristic arrogance, Groves knew just how important he was to the Manhattan Project. He once stated that "If I can’t do the job, no one man can." And this statement may very well be true, for who else could have taken on such an intimidating mission?

On the opposite end of the spectrum was Oppenheimer, a scientist who lacked the managerial skills of Groves yet still possessed the knowledge that was undoubtedly essential to the project. Nevertheless, there was nothing about Oppenheimer that suggested that he was the man best suited for the job of leading the Manhattan Project. "He was second-best by any measure." And Oppenheimer himself agreed with this sentiment, stating that he was chosen for the job "by default." He knew this was a job that no one in their right mind wanted and the men best qualified for the position were not available. But it soon became clear to Groves that the U.S. Army was not going to be able to find a man better suited for the job. In the end, Oppenheimer was chosen by Groves to serve as the scientific leader of the Manhattan Project, not because of his Nobel Prizes (or lack thereof) or his experience in the laboratory, but because of his technical competence. Groves believed very strongly in his decision to appoint Oppenheimer:

Oppenheimer once said, jokingly, that he believed General Groves had "a fatal weakness for good men." This was Oppenheimer’s explanation as to why he was chosen for the job. Nevertheless, Groves saw a definite genius in Oppenheimer, and felt that there was a certain kind of resemblance between them. It was almost as if Groves related to Oppenheimer at a very elemental and personal level. For whatever reason, Groves knew from the very beginning "that he had found a crucially important ally" in J. Robert Oppenheimer.

Regardless of their differences, Groves and Oppenheimer would prove to be a successful duo in the building of the atomic bomb. Both men were an essential piece to the puzzle when it came time to combining the necessary knowledge within the scientific minds of the world and the administrative competence of the U.S. Army. This was clearly seen in both Oppenheimer and Groves; Oppenheimer had the smarts, and Groves knew how to get things done. Together, they were just what the United States needed to produce the first atomic weapons.

When the time came for the United States military to begin production on the atomic bomb, there was a significant lacking in their supply of men and know-how. Indeed, for such a large undertaking as was the Manhattan Project, the Army was certainly capable of coordinating and managing the operation without issue. However, they lacked one crucial element: the scientific knowledge needed to make the bomb a reality. On the reverse side of the conundrum, the scientists that possessed all of the mechanical and experimental data needed to construct a nuclear weapon lacked the procurement (and the monetary essentials) to make such a project feasible. Both the scientists and the Army realized that the success of the Manhattan Project hinged on a collaborative effort at building a relationship of "trust and understanding" between the two parties. The very essence of this relationship is thus personified in the relationship between General Groves and J. Robert Oppenheimer.

Those who were most closely associated with the building of the atomic bomb can attest that the collaboration between General Groves and Oppenheimer was of the utmost importance to the Manhattan Project. Perhaps one of the reasons Groves and Oppenheimer worked so well together was also one of the reasons Groves chose the Berkeley professor in the first place. Oppenheimer had impressed the general with his comprehension of the kind of laboratory that was needed to build the bomb. This was a catalyst of understanding and agreement that would last throughout the duration of the Manhattan Project. But there was more to this "match made in heaven" than mere agreement.

At face value, the vast differences between the two men did not make for a promising partnership, yet they found a way to work together beautifully with few problems or disagreements. Upon their first meeting, the two men connected perfectly. From the very beginning, their relationship was forged on the grounds of trust and respect for one another. The two men realized that without the other, their common goal could not be achieved. "Groves needed Oppenheimer’s skills as much as Oppenheimer needed Groves’ approval."

Another aspect that influenced Groves’s decision to appoint Oppenheimer was that the general saw somewhat of himself in Oppenheimer. Oppenheimer possessed an aura of desire and determination, as well as a sense of excellence that Groves undoubtedly appreciated. In a way, Groves and Oppenheimer shared common characteristics that made them both "demanding and compelling leaders." Groves knew, instinctively as it may have been, that above all else Oppenheimer had what it took to get the job done. He knew that Oppenheimer could relate to both parties involved; the scientists and the military men. And this would prove to be a quality most valuable to the project’s success.

When Groves and Oppenheimer first began working on the Manhattan Project, the two men found that they agreed on nearly every aspect of the program, including the location of the new laboratory. There was a need to move the operation from its current location in Chicago to a more tranquil setting in which progress could be made. Thus, Los Alamos, New Mexico was eventually chosen as the location of the bomb program’s research and design headquarters. Groves and Oppenheimer wasted little time in getting down to business, for time was most certainly of the essence. However, Groves did take a moment to size Oppenheimer up and to see if the man he had chosen "had a practical bone in his body." Of course, the general was most pleased with the results. Groves drilled Oppenheimer with a number of questions, one right after the other. In return, Oppenheimer sat patiently and "addressed each technical and organizational obstacle" so well that Groves later wrote that he was "strongly impressed by Oppenheimer’s intelligence and quick grasp of the problem."

For the next three years, the relationship between the general and the physicist would continue to grow over the duration of the Manhattan Project. As his job description stipulated, "Oppenheimer reported to Groves, about matters large and small" pertaining to the design and development of the atomic bomb. Interestingly enough, when the two men first met, they both made similar assumptions about each other. Thanks to their respective arrogance and prevailing self-righteousness, both men believed that they could inevitably "dominate" their relationship. In ways, both men were somewhat correct in making this presumption. On the one hand, Groves understood just how indispensable Oppenheimer was to the success of the bomb project. He believed he could control Oppenheimer by using his past involvement with the communist party. Likewise, Oppenheimer knew that the only way he could retain his position was to continually assure Groves that he was indeed the best there was. Oppenheimer "realized that his communist associations gave Groves a certain hold over him, but by demonstrating his unique competence, he believed, he would convince the general to allow him to run the laboratory as he saw fit."

As his work conditions specified, Oppenheimer quickly became the scientist that Groves wanted. And as it turned out, Oppenheimer was most suited for this particular task. Those who knew the man best knew that Oppenheimer was quite capable in presenting Groves with a façade that the general would approve of. Oppenheimer knew how to influence Groves in order to achieve what was necessary, at least in his eyes. Oppenheimer became the "deft and efficient administrator" that Groves required. And this proved to be a most affective tactic on the part of Oppenheimer during his time at Los Alamos.

As their relationship continued to grow while work progressed on the atomic bomb, Oppenheimer realized another opportunity that his newfound position bequeathed him. One of the most significant strikes that Oppenheimer had against him when he first came on board the project was the fact that he had never won a Nobel Prize. When informed of this, Groves was urged not to give the position to Oppenheimer, for without a Nobel Prize, he lacked the necessary prestige needed for such a venture. Fortunately for Oppenheimer, the general paid no mind to such criticisms, for at that time during the early stages of the Manhattan Project, Groves saw in him "what others did not." Groves realized that what his detractors viewed as weaknesses, Groves regarded as strengths. Groves’s insightfulness would prove to be most beneficial to Oppenheimer in this regard. The Manhattan Project would serve as a proving ground for both Groves and Oppenheimer. For years, the esteem that both men had worked so tirelessly for had evaded them. And now, fate had handed them both a chance at making a name for themselves and attaining what had eluded them for so long.

In order to maintain complete civility between themselves, Groves and Oppenheimer had established a certain etiquette with which they treated each other. At times, Oppenheimer could be rather condescending toward his students as well as his peers, thanks to his quick wit and self-divulging sarcasm. However, with Groves, Oppenheimer edited himself in order to work with the general. Instead of snapping at what he might have perceived as an ignorant or superfluous question, Oppenheimer listened patiently to whatever inquiries Groves made and answered his questions accordingly. Likewise, Groves treated Oppenheimer in the same manner. With most of the men under his command, Groves chose to push them as hard as he needed to until he received the desired result. The same was not so with Oppenheimer. In his case, the physicist received a much lighter approach from Groves, who treated Oppenheimer more tactfully. Groves realized that "some men if pushed too hard will break." Priscilla Green Duffield, Oppenheimer’s secretary, recalled how Groves would often walk past her desk and fail to greet her with so much as a "hello." Instead, the general would make a crass comment such as, "Your face is dirty" and walk straight into Oppenheimer’s office. Such coarse behavior garnered Groves quite an unfavorable reputation among at Los Alamos. Fortunately for Oppenheimer, this kind of crude conduct also tended to attract criticism toward Groves and placed Oppenheimer in a much more auspicious light among the other scientists.

As Groves and Oppenheimer began working together, one of the first issues that arose was that of the location of the actual scientific research and development that was to take place during the development of the bomb. Under the initial plan set forth by the general, the scientists were going to be scattered across the country at various different laboratories. Groves believed that by assigning each individual group of researchers their own duties and denying them knowledge of what was being done by the other parties involved, he could therefore keep the project as top secret as possible. Oppenheimer found this to be a most inappropriate situation. He believed that compartmentalizing the research in order to ensure secrecy could lead to duplicate work and thus waste precious time. "It also left scientists with no sense of hope or direction, not to mention the fact that communication between the different laboratories could prove to be difficult." And so, with his cunning negotiation skills, Oppenheimer argued his case to Groves. In order to rid the project of the clumsiness of compartmentalization, Oppenheimer suggested that the project be merged into a single secluded location in order to better guarantee secrecy. It did not take long for Groves to realize the wisdom behind Oppenheimer’s idea and soon after, the Los Alamos Laboratory was built. Thanks to Oppenheimer’s insight, he was now certain that the scientific aspects of the project were free of any delays or miscommunications caused by compartmentalization, and Groves could keep a watchful eye on the "troublesome scientists" at all times.

The militarization of the Los Alamos Laboratory was another challenge that faced its leaders, and proved to be another example of the unique collaboration that Groves and Oppenheimer shared. In the early days of the atomic bomb project, Groves had designed the laboratory to be a military operation where each scientist wore uniforms and were issued ranks. Upon his attempt to summon the help of such highly regarded scientists such as Rabi, Bacher, McMillan, and Alvarez, Oppenheimer was met with a strong opposition to the military style of organization and operation at Los Alamos. Oppenheimer was told that if he went along with Groves’s plans, none of the scientists would agree to provide their services. Oppenheimer, realizing just how essential these men were to the success of the Manhattan Project, wrote a letter to Groves insisting that the project be demilitarized. Of course, by no means was Oppenheimer assured that Groves would go along with the demands made by the scientists. Nevertheless, "Oppenheimer mustered his confidence and argued firmly and eloquently that their services were needed too urgently to risk losing them, and ignoring their concerns would certainly result in further problems and delays." With the diplomatic help of James Conant, a compromise was made with Groves "to leave the laboratory under civilian administration during the early experimental stages of the work."

As the collaborative effort between Groves and Oppenheimer matured, the two men continued to work together in order to allow the Manhattan Project to run as smoothly as possible. As Oppenheimer found mistakes that had been made by either other scientists or the military, he would prepare written reports on how to fix the problem and then hand them off to the general who would then take it to the next step to be implemented. "After sitting on Oppie’s recommendation for a month, Groves agreed to explore it." Thanks to Oppenheimer’s ingenuity as a scientist and Groves’s faith in the professor, the necessary steps were taken to help work out any kinks found in the Army’s atomic program.

These were not the only mistakes to be solved thanks to the brilliance of Mr. Oppenheimer. There was no mistaking the fact that he and Groves had benefited mutually from their relationship at Los Alamos. At one point, the general came under ridicule for his proposed method of assembling the plutonium bomb and was scorned by the scientists behind his back thanks to his poor suggestion. However, Oppenheimer believed very firmly that anyone, whether it was a scientist, a military man, or even a janitor could prove to be the source of a sound idea. "In the end Groves’ absurd proposal planted the seed of an idea in someone in the audience." Oppenheimer’s prevailing wisdom over the distrust of his fellow scientists provides further proof that Groves and Oppenheimer worked together most effectively.

Despite the productive interaction that Groves and Oppenheimer enjoyed, their work together was not completely devoid of incident. As much faith as Groves had in his appointment of Oppenheimer, there was still the issue of security, which Groves was directly responsible for. One day, while working at the Los Alamos Laboratory, Oppenheimer made the mistake of taking a trip to Chicago in order to file a request for plutonium in person. Oppenheimer did so without permission and had even let slip what he had intended to use the plutonium for. Despite his previous record of leniency with security issues, Groves was more than upset with Oppenheimer.

Another incident occurred that was initially born out of Oppenheimer’s past involvement with the communist party. Despite appointing him director of scientific research at Los Alamos and even supplying him the necessary vouchers for his security clearance, Groves remained suspicious of Oppenheimer. He ordered that MPs be stationed outside of Oppenheimer’s house at Los Alamos in order to keep a close watch on the professor. This suspicion was raised even further thanks to Army Intelligence prying into the lives of Oppenheimer and other scientists, attempting to dig up dirt and possibly charge these men with treason. There was much concern over what this interference could do to the atomic bomb program itself. Some of the other scientists involved were worried that this sort of inquiry by the government might lead to serious delays. The impending setbacks caught the attention of many of those in the upper echelon of the Manhattan Project, inspiring Vannevar Bush to "recommend quick approval for Oppenheimer and other vital scientists despite their ‘unusual’ backgrounds." At this point, Groves was forced to step in and put an end to this issue, preparing a memorandum that stated:

This serves as further verification of Groves’s absolute confidence in Oppenheimer, as well as his abilities to work with the professor in order to achieve their common goal. Nevertheless, these moments of disagreement between the two men were easily resolved, and were few and far between. Groves and Oppenheimer enjoyed a most cordial and productive partnership during the Manhattan Project that continued to prosper.

Over the course of the bomb project, Groves and Oppenheimer also managed to develop a personal relationship. Groves never lost faith in Oppenheimer, but as the years went by, the Manhattan Project took its toll on the Berkeley professor. Groves knew that Oppenheimer was not as strong a man as he was, "physically or emotionally," and the general knew that the loss of Oppenheimer would lead to a severe collapse in morale at Los Alamos. At this stage, Oppenheimer "was sleeping only a few hours a night, his weight had dropped to 114 pounds, and he appeared to be living on nervous energy." Groves was quite worried that his director would not be able to withstand much more of this stress. In order to help provide him with emotional and moral support, Groves brought in Oppenheimer’s friend I. I. Rabi and his younger brother Frank to spend the duration of the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos in hopes that their presence around Oppenheimer would help with the physicist’s ravaged mind. Along with Rabi and his brother Frank, Oppenheimer found the emotional support he needed to endure the "nerve-wracking" months leading up to the initial test of the bomb, thanks to the friend he had made in General Groves.

Few would have predicted just how well Oppenheimer and Groves would have gotten along upon their initial meeting. But in the end, they proved to work perfectly together. Groves sensed an "overweening ambition" in Oppenheimer that drove the man to obtain that which had avoided him for so long. He knew that Oppenheimer’s "contributions to theoretical physics had not brought him the recognition that he believed he deserved." Both men realized that the Manhattan Project could prove to be Oppenheimer’s chance at acquiring the status he deserved. And Groves exploited this fact in driving Oppenheimer to do the best job he could. That was one of Groves’s innate abilities as a leader; he combined his own dreams and aspirations with the ambitions of others. This was one of the reasons Groves and Oppenheimer worked so well together. They both saw in each other the tools that were needed in order to attain their shared ambition.

On the day that the United States bombed Hiroshima, the men of the Manhattan Project fully realized the fruits of their labor. Upon hearing the news that the first atomic bomb was successful, Groves’s initial reaction was restrained. He realized that victory would only be obtained after the U.S. had dropped "two bombs on Japan." Nevertheless, the general congratulated Oppenheimer and the men who worked so hard for three years to build the bomb. Oppenheimer responded with a simple "Thank you." The two men were somewhat somber about their accomplishment, knowing full well that even though they had successfully bombed Hiroshima, they would first need to drop a second bomb in order to bring the war to an end.

Of course, the second nuclear attack on Japan was successful, and victory in the Pacific was soon attained. But it was not an easily won victory. The United States Military had invested many years and a great deal of finances in developing the world’s first atomic weapons. It had taken the hard work of thousands of individuals to bring the necessary skills, knowledge, and materials under a single focus in order to achieve this national goal. And all the while, at the heart of this grand operation were General Leslie R. Groves and J. Robert Oppenheimer. These men were the unlikely pair that made the U.S. Army’s vision of nuclear weapons a reality.

When all was said and done, it was the collective result of Oppenheimer’s intellect and ambition, and Groves’s intuition that ensured him that Oppenheimer was the right man for the job. And thanks to the unique personalities of Groves and Oppenheimer, the two men found a way around their inherent differences. They worked together so beautifully in order to make the atomic bomb a reality.